e. Bipolar cells lamellated corpuscles Structures apart of inner, middle, or outer ear? which is a type of tonic receptor that detects both continuous deep pressure and distortion of the skin? Some transmembrane receptors are activated by chemicals called ligands. The extraction of relevant features from the photoplethysmography signal for estimating certain physiological parameters is a challenging task. e. Lacrimal canaliculus -Saccule d. Reduced lens flexibility, Photoreceptors in the retina of the eye detect changes in light intensity and wavelength. d. photoreceptor. In addition to these two types of deeper receptors, there are also rapidly adapting hair receptors, which are found on nerve endings that wrap around the base of hair follicles. what is a wild type receptor? Touch: The Skin - Foundations of Neuroscience - Michigan State University 2. name and arguments, use TriCirc (A, B, C). Localization and sensitivity are easily determined in a __________ receptive field. The four major types of tactile mechanoreceptors include: Merkels disks, Meissners corpuscles, Ruffini endings, and Pacinian corpuscles. 3) Lacrimal sac Recall that the epidermis is the outermost layer of skin in mammals. These nerve endings detect the movement of hair at the surface of the skin, such as when an insect may be walking along the skin. The four major types of tactile mechanoreceptors include: Merkel's disks, Meissner's corpuscles, Ruffini endings, and Pacinian corpuscles. c. A short eyeball The dynamics of capsaicin binding with this transmembrane ion channel is unusual in that the molecule remains bound for a long time. For this reason, capsaicin can be used as a topical analgesic, such as in products like Icy Hot. Rapidly adapting light-touch receptors Located in superficial dermis Pacinian corpuscles: Detect deep pressure and vibration Located in deep dermis Epidermis Derived from ectoderm Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium 4 or 5 main layers: Stratum basale (stratum germinativum): Deepest layer Germinating layer Cutaneous receptors are a type of __________. Large receptors respond to deep pressure and vibration j. Ruffini endings (bulbous corpuscle) i. The large mechanoreceptorsPacinian corpuscles and Ruffini endingsare located in the lower layers and respond to deeper touch. what ion is responsible for depolarization of hair cells of the spiral organ? Specialized free nerve endings that surround hair follicles are called __________ hair plexuses. For example, the general sense of touch, which is known as somatosensation, can be separated into light pressure, deep pressure, vibration, itch, pain, temperature, or hair movement. Ruffini endings are encapsulated mechanoreceptors. Activated rhodopsin inhibits the production of glutamate by rods. Posterior one-third of the tongue and the superior pharynx - Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) The most obvious omission from this list is balance. Special pressure sensors called baroreceptors (or venoatrial stretch receptors) located in the right atrium of the heart detect increases in the volume and pressure of blood returned to the heart. The types of nerve endings, their locations, and the stimuli they transduce are presented in the table below. Glutamate inhibits the bipolar cells that synapse with the rods. Graded potentials in receptor cells are called receptor potentials. What receptors detect touch and pressure? - TeachersCollegesj Identify and briefly explain the two single-gene diseases. An interoceptor is one that detects stimuli from internal organs and tissues, such as the receptors that sense the increase in blood pressure in the aorta or carotid sinus. d. Cochlea Place the following labels in order indicating the passage of sound waves through the ear and hearing apparatus starting outside the ear. Spinal nerves have mixed populations of fibers; some are motor fibers and some are sensory. Physiology, Sensory System - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf Which of the following would stimulate somatic nociceptors? Various feature extraction methods have been proposed in the literature. Pacinian corpuscles; a large, encapsulated tactile receptor that detects deep pressure and high-frequency vibration. Chapter 1. These modalities include pressure, vibration, light touch, tickle, itch, temperature, pain, proprioception, and kinesthesia. Mascular degeneration occurs when the __________ degenerates. Modality refers to the way that information is encoded into a perception. Stimuli are of three general types. transparent & avascular Specific types of receptors called _____ detect stimuli in the internal organs. d. basilar membrane and vestibular membrane. Which of the following are examples of encapsulated receptors? c. vestibule The modulus of elasticity is 20GPa20 \mathrm{~GPa}20GPa for the concrete and 200GPa200 \mathrm{~GPa}200GPa for the steel. In this demonstration, two sharp points, such as two thumbtacks, are brought into contact with the subjects skin (though not hard enough to cause pain or break the skin). Receptors are biological transducers that convert energy from both external and internal environments into electrical impulses. b. Which receptor controls the dilation of pupils? - JacAnswers What causes Trachoma, a type of conjunctivitis? c. Central artery and vein * H+, EXs associated w/ what taste sensation? Physiology, Vibratory Sense - PubMed a. basilar membrane. They respond to fine touch and pressure, but they also respond to low-frequency vibration or flutter. Light touch is transduced by the encapsulated endings known as tactile (Meissners) corpuscles. Somatosensation is the group of sensory modalities that are associated with touch and limb position. Journal of Cellular Neuroscience | Journal of Cellular Neuroscience It dissociates rhodopsin and changes 11-cis-retinal to all-trans-retinal. b. Ca 2+ Stretch receptors monitor the stretching of tendons, muscles, and the components of joints. The cranial nerves can be strictly sensory fibers, such as the olfactory, optic, and vestibulocochlear nerves, or mixed sensory and motor nerves, such as the trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves. _____ corpuscles in the dermis detect pressure, whereas _____ corpuscles in the dermis detect fine touch. : *Pinna outer Structures apart of inner, middle, or outer ear? In low-light conditions, only rods are activated, and visual acuity is best in the ________ of the eye. The points could then be moved closer and re-tested until the subject reports feeling only one point, and the size of the receptive field of a single receptor could be estimated from that distance. f. Ganglion cell, 1. * Na+, EXs associated w/ what taste sensation? -Choroid -Iris -Cochlea - LIGHT. b. bony labyrinth and temporal bone. These . The general senses also include the visceral senses, which are separate from the somatic nervous system function in that they do not normally rise to the level of conscious perception. 6. d. Temporal bone. Hearing and balance are also sensed by mechanoreceptors. *Saccule The structural classifications are either based on the anatomy of the cell that is interacting with the stimulus (free nerve endings, encapsulated endings, or specialized receptor cell), or where the cell is located relative to the stimulus (interoceptor, exteroceptor, proprioceptor). Malleus Some thermoreceptors are sensitive to just cold and others to just heat. deep pressure and vibration: lamellar (Pacinian) corpus- cles, in reticular layer. Place the ossicles of the ear in order from the tympanic membrane to the oval window. These categories are based on the nature of the stimuli that each receptor class transduces. a. Retina Perception is the central processing of sensory stimuli into a meaningful pattern involving awareness. a. complex in structure An uneven cornea Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. The nociceptive receptorsthose that detect painare located near the surface. The foot plate is part of the detect pressure, vibration. Which type of receptor detects pressure and vibration? Below the epidermis and dermis is the subcutaneous tissue, or hypodermis, the fatty layer that contains blood vessels, connective tissue, and the axons of sensory neurons. The __________, the black hole in the eye, is surrounded by the colorful _________. c. overlapping visual fields. Thermoreceptors are sensitive to temperature changes, and photoreceptors are sensitive to light energy. 4) Bipolar cells. 6. perilymph of scala tympani ANAPHY SPECIAL SENSE NOTES.docx - THE GENERAL SENSES RECEPTORS 1 Any deformation in the corpuscle causes action potentials to be generated by opening pressure-sensitive sodium ion channels in the axon membrane. A third classification of receptors is by how the receptor transduces stimuli into membrane potential changes. Pacinian corpuscles are rapidly adapting receptors that detect gross pressure changes and vibrations in the skin. The epidermis serves as a barrier to water and to invasion by pathogens. c. Rod 2) Lacrimal canaliculus Destruction or atrophy of retinal pigment epithelium, Cornea or lens not uniformly curved and image is not sharply focused, Excessive pressure buildup in the aqueous humor. (a) To explain how to cure paralysis, (b) To persuade people to wear helmets, (c) To describe the effects of spinal injuries, (d) To describe different types of paralysis. Ruffini endings are slow adapting, encapsulated receptors that respond to skin stretch and are present in both the glabrous and hairy skin. What was the author's purpose? interoceptors Place the three regions of the ear in order from lateral to medial: - external ear - inner ear - middle ear 1. 2. round window, What is the correct order through which sound travels in the inner ear? Chemical stimuli can be detected by a chemoreceptors that detect chemical stimuli, such as a chemicals that lead to the sense of smell. The LibreTexts libraries arePowered by NICE CXone Expertand are supported by the Department of Education Open Textbook Pilot Project, the UC Davis Office of the Provost, the UC Davis Library, the California State University Affordable Learning Solutions Program, and Merlot. They are found in the bone periosteum, joint capsules, pancreas and other viscera, breast, and genitals. c. basilar membrane and tectorial membrane. The relative density of pressure receptors in different locations on the body can be demonstrated experimentally using a two-point discrimination test. What does the molecular similarity of stevia to glucose mean for the gustatory sense. -Sclera Receptors are the cells or structures that detect sensations. Pacinian receptors detect pressure and vibration by being compressed which stimulates their internal dendrites. What structure focuses incoming light onto the retina? They respond to fine touch and pressure, but they also respond to low-frequency vibration or flutter. *Tensor tympani muscle, Structures apart of inner, middle, or outer ear? 7. basilar membrane Merkels disks are abundant on the fingertips and lips. 7. basilar membrane, What ion is responsible for depolarization of hair cells of the spiral organ? Physical stimuli, such as pressure and vibration, as well as the sensation of sound and body position (balance), are interpreted through a mechanoreceptor. As tears drain through the lacrimal caruncle they enter small holes called the lacrimal __________. *Semicircular canals There are three classes of mechanoreceptors: tactile, proprioceptors, and baroreceptors. d. It dissociates G-proteins. 4. vestibular membrane Deep pressure and vibration is transduced by lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscles, which are receptors with encapsulated endings found deep in the dermis, or subcutaneous tissue. How does light affect rhodopsin? 5. oval window - Pharyngotympanic tube d. oval window. Meissner corpuscles in the fingertips, such as the one viewed here using bright field light microscopy, allow for touch discrimination of fine detail. d. oval window. b. a. stimuli 1) Choroid Pacinian corpuscles; a large, encapsulated tactile receptor that detects deep pressure and high-frequency vibration. THE GENERAL SENSES RECEPTORS 1. Correctly label the structures associated with the lacrimal apparatus. * acids 5.4C: Cutaneous Sensation - Medicine LibreTexts Different types of stimuli from varying sources are received and changed into the electrochemical signals of the nervous system. What are receptors for the general senses? Human Anatomy & Physiology 2 [Ch. 16: Special Senses] (credit: modification of work by Wbensmith/Wikimedia Commons; scale-bar data from Matt Russell). __________ pain is a sensation associated with a body part that has been removed. Despite the rapidly growing popularity of laser vision correction (LVC) in the correction of myopia, its quantitative evaluation has not been thoroughly investigated. What is another name for the cochlear duct? Merkels disks are found in the upper layers of skin near the base of the epidermis, both in skin that has hair and on glabrous skin; that is, the hairless skin found on the palms and fingers, the soles of the feet, and the lips of humans and other primates. What structures make up the vestibular complex? b - Primary auditory cortex Graded potentials in free and encapsulated nerve endings are called generator potentials. This means that its receptors are not associated with a specialized organ, but are instead spread throughout the body in a variety of organs. The sensory receptors in the skin are: Mechanoreceptors Ruffini's end organ (skin stretch) End-bulbs of Krause (Cold) Meissner's corpuscle (changes in texture, slow vibrations) Pacinian corpuscle (deep pressure, fast vibrations) Merkel's disc (sustained touch and pressure) Free nerve endings thermoreceptor nociceptors chemoreceptors Merkel's discs detect sustained touch and pressure. Capsaicin molecules bind to a transmembrane ion channel in nociceptors that is sensitive to temperatures above 37C. e. Cochlear branch of CN VIII (vestibulocochlear nerve) d. Axons of glanglion cells from the retina of the left eye, Which disorder of refraction is corrected with a concave lens? 3 - Pressure waves are generated within the oval window and travel through the scala vestibuli. with the x and y coordinates of the vertices, respectively. The center of the retina is a pit called the ____________ . The vestibule contains two structures, the utricle and __________. - They are unmyelinated Optic disc photoreceptor: A specialized neuron able to detect and react to light. General senses often contribute to the sense of touch, as described above, or to proprioception (body position) and kinesthesia (body movement), or to a visceral sense, which is most important to autonomic functions. They are rapidly adapting, fluid-filled, encapsulated neurons with small, well-defined borders and are responsive to fine details. What type of receptor picks up pressure? Pacinian corpuscle - Wikipedia For 2n4,n22n.2 \leq n \leq 4, n^{2} \geq 2^{n}.2n4,n22n. Some hair receptors also detect skin deflection, and certain rapidly adapting hair receptors allow detection of stimuli that have not yet touched the skin. Unencapsulated OR Encapsulated Tactile Receptor: After the thalamus, auditory nerve signals reach the. Drag and drop the labels into the appropriate location on the figure. Merkels disks and Meissners corpuscles are not as plentiful in the palms as they are in the fingertips. Other overlooked senses include temperature perception by thermoreceptors and pain perception by nociceptors. -Uses rhodopsin 3 - Tympanic membrane They are rapidly-adapting mechanoreceptors that sense deep, transient (not prolonged) pressure, and high-frequency vibration. The pain and temperature receptors in the dermis of the skin are examples of neurons that have free nerve endings. What type of papillae is the largest and least numerous? Can cbc detect viral or bacterial infection? - JacAnswers What structure is the dividing line between the anterior and posterior chambers? Decide if these retinal events occur in the dark or in the light. What type of receptors detects pressure? - Sage-Answer Touch receptors are denser in glabrous skin (the type found on human fingertips and lips, for example), which is typically more sensitive and is thicker than hairy skin (4 to 5 mm versus 2 to 3 mm). The average intensity of light emerging from a polarizing sheet is 0.764W/m20.764 \mathrm{W} / \mathrm{m}^{2}0.764W/m2, and the average intensity of the horizontally polarized light incident on the sheet is 0.883W/m20.883 \mathrm{W} / \mathrm{m}^{2}0.883W/m2. In this chapter we will discuss the general senses which include pain, temperature, touch, pressure, vibration and proprioception. Hair follicle receptors: detect light . Another way that receptors can be classified is based on their location relative to the stimuli. g. Retina. Epiglottis - Vagus nerve (CN X), First, match the taste receptor to the proper cranial nerve name, and then choose the appropriate cranial nerve number. The papillae that are fewest in number, but contain the most taste buds, are the _________ papillae. Determine the angle that the transmission axis of the polarizing sheet makes with the horizontal. During hearing, the structure(s) first to vibrate is/are the Ruffini's end organs detect tension deep in the skin. A special sense (discussed in Chapter 15)is one that has a specific organ devoted to it, namely the eye, inner ear, tongue, or nose. They contain mechanically-gated ion channels whose gates open or close in response to pressure, touch, stretching, and sound. Temperature receptors are free nerve endings. Click and drag the structures involved in the auditory projection pathway to the correct item shown in the figure. Meissner's corpuscles respond to pressure and lower frequency vibrations, and Pacinian corpuscles detect transient pressure and higher frequency vibrations. Rods: what type of receptors detect deep pressure and vibration? Which auditory ossicle contacts the oval window? e. Tensor tympani muscle If the two points are felt as one point, it can be inferred that the two points are both in the receptive field of a single sensory receptor. They are found in both glabrous and hairy skin. b. vestibular cells. c. hair cells of spiral organ. Meissners corpuscles, Ruffini endings, Pacinian corpuscles, and Krause end bulbs are all encapsulated. Merkels disks are densely distributed in the fingertips and lips. Possible cures include removal of scar tissue and transplantation of cells that promote nerve growth. Action potentials are transmitted out of the optic nerve. In skeletal muscle tissue, these stretch receptors are called muscle spindles. A fifth type of mechanoreceptor, Krause end bulbs, are found only in specialized regions. MRI image testing does a good job of finding deep vein thrombosis(DVT) in the thigh and pelvis. This is because The central integration may then lead to a motor response. Merkel cells are expanded dendritic endings, and they respond to sustained pressure and touch. The general senses can be divided into somatosensation, which is commonly considered touch, but includes tactile, pressure, vibration, temperature, and pain perception. c. Nasal cavity What type of receptor detects changes in light? . When strong enough to reach threshold they can directly trigger an action potential along the axon of the sensory neuron. How can a person perceive over 4,000 different odors? c. primary auditory cortex. Also, what is referred to simply as touch can be further subdivided into pressure, vibration, stretch, and hair-follicle position, on the basis of the type of mechanoreceptors that perceive these touch sensations. d. K+, What neurotransmitter is released from depolarized hair cells to stimulate fibers of the vestibulocochlear nerve? -Highly concentrated in and around the macula Pacinian corpuscles, located deep in the dermis of both glabrous and hairy skin, are structurally similar to Meissners corpuscles. These categories are based on the nature of stimuli each receptor class transduces. the general sense of touch, which is known as somatosensation, can be separated into light pressure, deep pressure, vibration, itch, pain, temperature, or hair . In this study, we present a novel fiducial point extraction algorithm to detect c and d points from the acceleration photoplethysmogram (APG), namely "CnD". - Semicircular canals Bulbous corpuscles are also known as Ruffini corpuscles, or type II cutaneous mechanoreceptors. What are receptors that detect changes in pressure? Which are examples of both somatic and visceral sensory receptors? What is the magnitude of the block's acceleration vector? 5 - A pressure wave in the endolymph of the cochlear duct displaces a specific region of the basilar membrane. Chapter 16 LS/HW Flashcards | Quizlet __________ are receptors that detect chemicals. Which type of corpuscles detect pressure? 2 - Sound waves are amplified due to movement by the auditory ossicles. - Pigmented layer of the retina. The posterior cavity contains the __________ canal, a remnant of embryonic development. Nociceptors are free (bare) nerve endings found in the skin (Figure 6.2), muscle, joints, bone and viscera. If this graded post-synaptic potential is strong enough to reach threshold it will trigger an action potential along the axon of the sensory neuron. b. tympanic membrane. a. 3) Horizontal cells For the study, the molecular modeling and geometry optimization of the PCBs have been performed on workspace program of CAChe Pro 5.04 . d. semicircular ducts. Pacinian corpuscles detect rapid vibrations (about 200-300 Hz). Photoreceptors in the rods and cones in the retina respond to light. The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels and Circulation, Chapter 21. Somatosensory Neurotransmission: Touch, Pain, & Temperature g. Primary visual cortex, a. a. bony and membranous labyrinths. Within the realm of physiology, senses can be classified as either general or special. A free nerve ending is an unencapsulated dendrite of a sensory neuron; they are the most common nerve endings in skin. b. Incus Mechanoreceiving free nerve endings detect touch, pressure, and stretching. a. medial geniculate nucleus. Several distinct receptor types form the somatosensory system including thermoreceptors (heat), nociceptors (pain), and mechanoreceptors (pressure). what is the order that sounds travels in the inner ear? Which type of receptors do not exhibit adaptation? 3. vestibular membrane They are part of the tactile-end organs in the skin, which include Merkel . Label the figure with the items provided. Mt. Sensory receptors are classified into five categories: mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, proprioceptors, pain receptors, and chemoreceptors. Tonic receptors are slow adapting receptors. Changes in the external and internal environment are called: Order these structures in the order that the tears travel through them/, 1) Lacrimal puncta This table shows that there are five basic types of sensory receptors: (1) mechanorecep-tors, which detect mechanical compression or stretching of the receptor or of tissues adjacent to the receptor; (2) thermoreceptors, which detect changes in temperature, some receptors detecting cold and others warmth; (3) nociceptors (pain receptors), which The Peripheral Nervous System, Chapter 18. Pacinian corpuscles, such as these visualized using bright field light microscopy, detect pressure (touch) and high-frequency vibration. As the number of cycles per second increases, the sound we perceive -Cornea However, these are not all of the senses. Each of the senses is referred to as a sensory modality. -Basilar membrane. c. Hyperopia * sucrose - They function well in dim light. b. spiral organ. Each year in the United States, 10,000 new cases of spinal cord injury are reported. Another physical stimulus that has its own type of receptor is temperature, which is sensed through a thermoreceptor that is either sensitive to temperatures above (heat) or below (cold) normal body temperature. Sensory receptors in the utricle detect the position of the: __________ occurs when impulses from an organ are perceived as originating from the skin. - Provides for eye shape - Is made of dense connective tissue Order these structures from superficial to deep. Perception is dependent on sensation, but not all sensations are perceived. Deep pressure and vibration is transduced by lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscles, which are receptors with encapsulated endings found deep in the dermis, or subcutaneous tissue. Merkels disk are slow-adapting, unencapsulated nerve endings that respond to light touch; they are present in the upper layers of skin that has hair or is glabrous. -Vitreous humor b. Visceral pain can be so great that it causes somatic pain. - Utricle. Indicate whether the given structure is located in the outer, middle, or inner ear. Activated rhodopsin inhibits the production of glutamate by rods. * caffeine The Cellular Level of Organization, Chapter 4. d. Dopamine, a. hair cells covered by an otolithic membrane, When you travel in an elevator (which moves linearly in space), the ___________ detect when the elevator is accelerating or decelerating. These sensory receptors are known as the cutaneous receptors and they are found in the epidermis and dermis of the skin. 1.2 Structural Organization of the Human Body, 2.1 Elements and Atoms: The Building Blocks of Matter, 2.4 Inorganic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, 2.5 Organic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, 3.2 The Cytoplasm and Cellular Organelles, 4.3 Connective Tissue Supports and Protects, 5.3 Functions of the Integumentary System, 5.4 Diseases, Disorders, and Injuries of the Integumentary System, 6.6 Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue, 6.7 Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems, 7.6 Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton, 8.5 Development of the Appendicular Skeleton, 10.3 Muscle Fiber Excitation, Contraction, and Relaxation, 10.4 Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension, 10.8 Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue, 11.1 Describe the roles of agonists, antagonists and synergists, 11.2 Explain the organization of muscle fascicles and their role in generating force, 11.3 Explain the criteria used to name skeletal muscles, 11.4 Axial Muscles of the Head Neck and Back, 11.5 Axial muscles of the abdominal wall and thorax, 11.6 Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs, 11.7 Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs, 12.1 Structure and Function of the Nervous System, 13.4 Relationship of the PNS to the Spinal Cord of the CNS, 13.6 Testing the Spinal Nerves (Sensory and Motor Exams), 14.2 Blood Flow the meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid Production and Circulation, 16.1 Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System, 16.4 Drugs that Affect the Autonomic System, 17.3 The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus, 17.10 Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions, 17.11 Development and Aging of the Endocrine System, 19.2 Cardiac Muscle and Electrical Activity, 20.1 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels, 20.2 Blood Flow, Blood Pressure, and Resistance, 20.4 Homeostatic Regulation of the Vascular System, 20.6 Development of Blood Vessels and Fetal Circulation, 21.1 Anatomy of the Lymphatic and Immune Systems, 21.2 Barrier Defenses and the Innate Immune Response, 21.3 The Adaptive Immune Response: T lymphocytes and Their Functional Types, 21.4 The Adaptive Immune Response: B-lymphocytes and Antibodies, 21.5 The Immune Response against Pathogens, 21.6 Diseases Associated with Depressed or Overactive Immune Responses, 21.7 Transplantation and Cancer Immunology, 22.1 Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System, 22.6 Modifications in Respiratory Functions, 22.7 Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System, 23.2 Digestive System Processes and Regulation, 23.5 Accessory Organs in Digestion: The Liver, Pancreas, and Gallbladder, 23.7 Chemical Digestion and Absorption: A Closer Look, 25.1 Internal and External Anatomy of the Kidney, 25.2 Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney: Anatomy of the Nephron, 25.3 Physiology of Urine Formation: Overview, 25.4 Physiology of Urine Formation: Glomerular Filtration, 25.5 Physiology of Urine Formation: Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion, 25.6 Physiology of Urine Formation: Medullary Concentration Gradient, 25.7 Physiology of Urine Formation: Regulation of Fluid Volume and Composition, 27.3 Physiology of the Female Sexual System, 27.4 Physiology of the Male Sexual System, 28.4 Maternal Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth, 28.5 Adjustments of the Infant at Birth and Postnatal Stages.